Abuse can take place in many forms and at many stages of life. Childhood sexual abuse and physical abuse are the most readily recognized by society, but they are not the only legitimate forms of abuse. In fact, research from the American Psychological Association (APA) states, “Children who had been psychologically abused suffered from anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, symptoms of post-traumatic stress and suicidality at the same rate and, in some cases, at a greater rate than children who were physically or sexually abused.”
Truly, emotional abuse has been overlooked time and time again, serving as a silent curse for its victims — many of which are children. “Although emotional abuse does not leave physical scars and consequently may be difficult to identify, such childhood experiences are particularly important to consider in the examination of later outcomes” (The Role of Attachment, 1445). The American Psychological Association also reports that “depression, general anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, attachment problems and substance abuse” are seen most commonly through emotional maltreatment than sexual or physical abuse (APA.org).
Young and Widom explain the research of Buckley, Blanchard and Neil, saying, “A separate body of research reveals that individuals with higher levels of anxiety symptoms show deficits in emotion perception and emotion regulation, and individuals with PTSD have shown an attentional bias to trauma-related stimuli” (Long-term Effects, 1370). In fact, “Individuals who experience emotional abuse during childhood are three to four times more likely to develop major depression in their lifetime” (Stressful Life, 210).
Studies show that those who have been emotionally abused are likely to have issues with perceiving/expressing emotions and recognizing them in others, exhibit antisocial tendencies, and lack prosocial behavioral skills (Long-term Effects, 1371). Prosocial behavior is defined by the ASCD as “positive actions that benefit others, prompted by empathy, moral values, and a sense of personal responsibility rather than a desire for personal gain.” Emotional abuse can also lead to psychopathy, which can often be seen in “...lack of remorse or shame, perverse or impulsive (often criminal) behavior, and other serious personality defects….” (Webster).
Emotional abuse can have lasting effects on peoples’ lives, many of which are not just emotional repercussions. Studies have actually shown that childhood abuse may lead to a cognitive deficit and other deficits have been shown to lead to poor performance in school (Long-term effects, 1370). Studies have also shown a link between emotional abuse and the development of cognitive vulnerabilities, disruption in neurobiological development, and changes in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which is the “major neuroendocrine stress response system” (Stressful Life, 218).
In addition to these problems that invade the everyday lives of those who have been emotionally abused, many of the problems people face daily are in their interaction with other people. Lack of knowledge about people with these histories can result in insulting stereotypes. While the only insulting terms you would find are the type that you would commonly hear on the playground (cry baby, wimp,etc.), language can still be very hurtful.
More harmful, perhaps, are peoples’ assumptions. Whether intentional or not, thoughtless comments can be very damaging and lead the person to believe they are deficient, and their coping mechanisms reinforce that belief. Some of this stems from the fact that society often does not recognize emotional abuse as a serious problem. Often, emotional abuse is seen as ‘firm parenting’ and those who have been damaged by this parenting style are seen as ‘too sensitive.’ Common damaging questions and comments include: “Why can’t you just let it go?”, “ What’s the big deal?”, and “Get over it- it was a long time ago!” The depression that usually accompanies and follows emotional abuse is often seen in society as a lack of resiliency and a character flaw. Stereotypes of being “weak” not only reinforce the negative messages planted by emotional abuse but perpetuates low self-esteem.
Social science has not learned nearly as much about emotional abuse as it has about other types of abuse. There appear to be no studies on societal attitudes or everyday life experiences for those who have experienced emotional abuse. There do not appear to be many statistics on inequality and life chances, either. Regardless, there are still several things that social scientists have learned that apply to those who have been emotionally abused.
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services reported that nearly 700,000 kids were abused and/or neglected in 2011. An estimated 9% of these children were thought to have been “victims of psychological maltreatment (i.e. emotional abuse and neglect)” (The Role of Attachment, 1437). 78.5% of these children were neglected- which many people do not realize is closely related to emotional abuse. The exact percentage is hard to say, however, because the statistics provided the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services did not add up to 100%. The reason for this is because often children experience multiple forms of abuse simultaneously.
The “Kindling Hypothesis” shows that childhood emotional abuse “lowers the threshold” of stress that a person can handle before depression is set off (Differential Relation, 872). Furthermore, research has shown that “life events that initially were incapable of triggering a first depressive episode later acquire the capacity to trigger a recurrence” (Stressful Life, 211). Emotional abuse can also cause “earlier onset, longer duration, more severe symptoms, greater impairment, and more episodes of depression (Stressful Life, 210).
The “Hopelessness Theory” proves this further, which says that dependent variables often act as triggers for depressive symptoms/ bouts of depression (Stressful Life, 219). Many times, those who have been emotionally abused blame themselves for dependent variables in their lives. Dependent variables would include anything that the person had a part in. For example, having an argument would be considered a dependent variable, whereas seeing a news report about a school shooting (though heartbreaking and certainly depressing), would be considered an independent variable. The difference between these two is that a person who has been emotionally abused can blame themselves for dependent variables, whereas an independent variable (such as a school shooting on the news) has nothing to do with that person.
Often, emotional abuse includes blaming the victim for their own abuse and the victims are made to feel guilty for how they are being treated. That often continues into adulthood and bleeds into other relationships. Therefore, an argument with a family member (even if the person did nothing wrong) can be made to feel guilty for the argument- or even to feel guilty for not giving up the argument and apologizing sooner. Dependent variables, therefore, can have a very negative effect on people and can spur on depressive symptoms (because everything is their fault, anyway).
Social science has also learned that the role of attachment is significant in how the abused child will attach themselves to others in their futures and that “attachment mediates the relationship between childhood maltreatment experiences and internalizing and externalizing symptoms in young adulthood” (The Role of Attachment, 1438). However, even with a strong attachment to non-abusive authority figures, studies showed that emotional abuse still was significant in how victims of emotional abuse functioned later in life. (The Role of Attachment, 1445). This shows that even with positive influences after the time of the emotional abuse, the victim was still significantly affected by their experiences with emotional maltreatment.
Unfortunately, emotional abuse is only beginning to be recognized by scientists as equally harmful as other types of abuse. “Compared to other childhood maltreatment experiences,research on emotional maltreatment experiences is lagging behind” (The Role of Attachment, 1445). As research grows and emotional abuse is recognized in the scientific world, hopefully, studies of social status and treatment in society will follow. This research is definitely needed in order for society to understand “the most challenging and prevalent form of child abuse and neglect” (APA.org).
Sources
American Psychological Association. N.p., 2014. Web. 10 Nov. 2014.
Cahall Young, Joanna, and Cathy Spatz Widom. "Long-Term Effects of Child Abuse and Neglect on Emotion Processing in Adulthood." Child Abuse & Neglect 38.8 (2014): 1369-81. EBSCO. Web. 15 Oct. 2014.
Kidron, Yael, and Steve Fleishman. "Research Matters / Promoting Adolescents' Prosocial Behavior." Educational Leadership: Teaching the Tweens 63.7 (2006): 90-91. Web. 15 Nov. 2014.
La Rocque, Cherie L., Kate L. Harkness, and R. M. Bagby. "The Differential Relation of Childhood Maltreatment to Stress Sensitization in Adolescent and Young Adult Depression." Journal of Adolescence 37.6 (2014): 871-82. EBSCO. Web. 15 Oct. 2014.
Lowell, Amanda, Kimberly Renk, and Amanda Havil Adgate. "The Role of Attachment in the Relationship Between Child Maltreatment and Later Emotional and Behavioral Functioning." Child Abuse & Neglect 38.9 (2014): 1436-49. EBSCO. Web. 15 Nov. 2014.
"Psychopathic personality." 1. Webster's New World Dictionary. Third College Edition ed. 1988. 1086. Print.
Shapero, Benjamin G., Shimrit K. Black, Richard T. Liu, Joshua Klugman, Rachel E. Bender, Lyn Y. Abramson, and Lauren B. Alloy. "Stressful Life Events and Depression Symptoms: The Effect of Childhood Emotional Abuse on Stress Reactivity." Journal of Clinical Psychology 70.3 (2013): 209-20. Web. 15 Sept. 2014.
United States Department of Health and Human Services. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Nov. 2014.
